About Alexander's Army - The Macedonians
"Alexander inherited from his father the most perfectly organized, trained, and equipped army of ancient times."
J.F.C. Fuller, 'The Generalship of Alexander the Great'
Many books have been written about Alexander's army. This paragraph serves as a brief introduction to the subject.
Macedonian Army
Historical Background
Until the 5th century BC, before Alexander's time, Greek warfare had been a matter of amateur civilian armies on summer campaigns. Summer was the traditional season for war as it presented the opportunity to destroy the enemy's crops and grazing herds. Battles were fought by hoplites, heavily armed footmen lined up in phalanxes - opposing rows, four to eight men deep. Phalanxes would clash frontally until one side gave way. The hoplite carried a large shield, body armour, greaves, a short spear as a thrusting weapon, and a sword.
But in Alexander's 4th century BC warfare was becoming the business of specialist professional mercenaries. As Greece was a poor country, poverty drove men to the military. To hire oneself out as a soldier was just a good way to make a living. The Athenian mercenary general Iphicrates introduced light armed troops - peltasts - next to the phalanx. Peltasts were much faster than hoplites, more effective in rough terrain and they could harass the enemy phalanx from the flanks or from the rear. The Theban general Epaminondas 'invented' battlefield tactics by concentrating his assault on one selected point of the enemy line.
King Philip II
Alexander's father, King Philip II, spent three years in Thebes from the age of fifteen (367-364 BC). This enabled him to study Epaminondas' Theban army. When Philip ascended to the throne of Macedonia in 359 BC he began to use his genius and experience to develop the brilliant Macedonian war machine. As Greek armies still consisted of both civilians and mercenaries, Philip should be credited for creating the world's first 100% professional army. In doing so, he combined the experience of the trained mercenary with the loyalty of the civilian.
While 'feudal' Asiatic armies were dominated by the mounted nobility and Greek 'democratic' armies by the infantry citizen, King Philip actually created two armies: the Royal Army of nobles and the Territorial Army of levies. This ensured a balance of power and contributed to the stability of the entire military organisation. Above that, Philip did away with seasonal campaigning once and for all. His force was a year round standing army, ready for battle in any season.
Royal Army - Companion Cavalry
Greek armies had used little or no cavalry. There was not one Greek horse at the battle of Marathon in 490 BC. When present, cavalry was used in dispersed formations for skirmishing or to pursue a routing enemy phalanx, but never as the prime weapon of assault. But the Macedonian kingdom traditionally possessed a strong nobility cavalry. What Philip did was to improve this existing Companion cavalry by drilling it to ride and attack in disciplined, dense formations for a concentrated punch. It was Philip who gave cavalry its prominent role on the battlefield.
The cavalry Companions were heavily armoured horsemen armed with a thrusting spear and a sword. There were eight Companion units of 200-300 men each, one of which was the élite unit, the Royal Squadron or agema. Its task was to lead the advance on the battlefield and to protect the king when necessary. When Alexander crossed the Hellespont in 334 BC he took 1,800 Companion cavalry with him. They operated together with Alexander on the right wing during battles. Please note ancient cavalry rode without stirrups or saddles; these were not introduced before the 4th century AD.
Royal Army - Hypaspists
Without doubt the hypaspists are the most mysterious units of the Macedonian army. Historians still lack clues about what they exactly looked like and how they were armed. Adding to the controversy are the various names attached to them: Guards, Shield-Bearers and, after the invasion of India, Silver Shields (or argyraspids; their origin is equally disputed). What is certain is that the hypaspists were outstanding infantry troops who were capable of performing a wide range of tasks. During battles they served in close combat as an extension of the phalanx, protecting its right flank, and they were also well equipped for skirmishing, fast marches, storming walls and rapid advances supporting the cavalry.
Common sense indicates the hypaspists must have been, in one way or another, a flexible and mobile adaption of the original Greek hoplite. Philip had developed the hypaspists from his original body of Foot Guards. When Alexander crossed into Asia the hypaspists numbered 3,000 men divided in three divisions, one of which was the élite unit, the Royal Foot Guards or agema. This agema unit had the same role as its cavalry counterpart.
(Before the invasion of India Alexander is said to have added gold and silver to the armor of his troops; probably during this time the name Silver Shields came into being. It may have been that the hypaspists adopted this new name, or that the argyraspids were veteran units recruited from both hypaspist and phalanx battalions. What is practically for sure is that the Silver Shields were 3,000 seasoned warriors, boasting an undefeated record under Alexander. After Alexander's death they were hardly controllable: they betrayed their general Eumenes and killed their commander Antigenes by burning him alive. In the end they were dispatched to distant Arachosia where the local satrap had secret orders to wear them out.)
Territorial Army - Phalanx
King Philip transformed the original Greek phalanx into a devastating and awesome formation, the Macedonian phalanx. Because of their heavy shield, held by the left arm, the Greek hoplites had been restricted to using a relatively short spear in the right hand. Philip did away with the large shield and replaced it by a smaller shield slung over the left shoulder. This enabled the new phalanx to carry a long pike, the sarissa, now with both hands. The sarissa measured 13 up to 17 feet. Philip made the phalanx 16 rows deep; the sarisass of the first five rows were pointing forwards, producing an impregnable forest of armor piercing iron. The other rows lifted their sarissas at an angle upwards, forming an effective protection against missiles.
Alexander brought six phalanx battalions into Persia, each consisting of 1500 men and making a grand total of 9,000 Foot Companions, as the phalangists were called. The phalanx was well suited for a defensive role during battles - forming the center of the front and capable of stopping just any enemy attack. Because its effectiveness relied entirely on cohesion, an attacking or advancing phalanx could run into serious trouble, especially on rough or hilly ground. According to Arrian, at the battle of Issus the steep banks of the river prevented Alexander's attacking phalanx from keeping a regular and unbroken front, resulting in serious numbers of casualties. But the prime weapon of the advancing phalanx was the fear it inspired and the demoralizing effect it had on the enemy. In 168 BC the Roman commander Paullus admitted that at the sight of the Macedonian phalanx 'he was smitten at once with astonishment and terror'.
written by nick