Alexander's Last Days: Reconstruction

[AdamKvanta]

I made a reconstruction of the last days of Alexander the Great. It is basically a harmonization of all the available sources. I haven't seen it done by anyone. I think the best literature about this topic is in Curtius Rufus, Histories of Alexander the Great, Book 10. Clarendon Ancient History Series. Translated by Yardley, J.C. Atkinson, J.E. (commentator). Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. 2009. (p. 141-149).

I tried to be neutral and made only a few alterations if I saw that the source was hopelessly embellished or corrupted. Sometimes I added a commentary in square brackets "[]". And since I'm a proponent of the arsenic hypothesis I didn't omit those passages that dealt with poisoning (including Alexander Romance).

This is not a definite version of the reconstruction so I might edit this in the future if I see good arguments for a change.

Links for sources and also for the arsenic hypothesis arguments can be found in this thread: https://www.pothos.org/forum/viewtopic. ... 581e0802a0

Any comment is welcome!

Sources:
Ju = Justin; LdM = Liber de Morte; Di = Diodorus; Ar = Arrian; Pl = Plutarch; Cu = Curtius; AR(G) = Alexander Romance (Greek and Armenian); AR(S) = Alexander Romance (Syriac); AR(A) = Alexander Romance (Armenian only); At = Athenaeus;

Alexander's Last Days: Reconstruction (version 1.00)

Days before the poisoning: [before 17. month Daesius] [before May 31, 323 B.C.]
a) Antipater wanted to poison Alexander. [Ar, Ju]

b) The poison was procured for Antipater by Aristotle, who was now afraid of Alexander on account of Callisthenes. [Ar]

c) Alexander returned to Babylon. Alexander then had banquets each night for several days. [Ju]

d) Antipater sent his son Cassander with instructions how to poison Alexander and he gave him the poison in the hoof of a mule. [Ar, Ju]

e) Cassander reached Babylon and gave Alexander gifts. [LdM]

f) Cassander had a meeting with his brother Iollas, Alexander's wine-pourer, to whom he revealed their father's instructions to poison Alexander. Cassander also gave Iollas the poison. Iollas agreed to do it because he had received some affront from Alexander a short time before this meeting. [LdM, Cu, Ar]

g) Cassander told Medius, a Thessalian, to prepare a banquet for Alexander where Iollas could poison Alexander. Medius agreed, being a lover of Iollas. [Ju, LdM, Ar]

Day 0: [17. month Daesius] [May 31, 323 B.C.]
a) Alexander offered the customary sacrifices to the gods and for the purpose of divination. [Di, Ar]

b) Alexander distributed the sacrificial victims as well as a quantity of wine to the army throughout the companies and centuries. [Ar]

c) Alexander had an evening banquet with Nearchus. [Ju, Ar]

d) After the banquet, Alexander had taken his customary bath before going to bed. [Pl]

e) As Alexander was returning to his bed-chamber, Medius, at that time the most influential of the Companions, proposed to Alexander to renew their reveling and invited him and his attendants to his house. [Ju, Di, Ar, Pl]

f) There were many guests at the banquet, some of them were Iollas' accomplices. They were eager for revolution and frightened of where Alexander's power would finally take him. Even before this, they had talked among themselves about killing him. [LdM, AR(G), AR(S)]

g) Guests began to drink wine and the last drink for Alexander was prepared by Iollas, who used to taste and mix Alexander's wine. Iollas had the poison ready in cold water, which he put into the drink after it had been tasted. [Cu, Di, Ar, Ju]

h) As Alexander reclined at the banquet, Iollas handed him the poisoned cup. [LdM, AR(G), AR(S)]

i) Alexander drank the poisoned cup. Those present kept talking to create a delay until the drink had sufficient time to work. After some brief conversation, Alexander suddenly gave a loud cry as if he had been wounded in his abdomen by an arrow. [LdM, AR(G), AR(S), Di, Ju, Ar]

j) Then, holding his stomach, he went to his room, went to stool [diarrhea or vomiting?] and took a bath [another one]. [LdM, Ar]

k) After a little time, controlling the pain, [Alexander came back to the banquet and] urged his friends to go on drinking. [AR(G), AR(S)]

l) The guests continued to drink. However, soon, the conspirators retired, guiltily and fearful of how matters would turn out. [LdM, AR(G), AR(S)]

m) After the guests had gone out of his presence, Alexander wanted to vomit and so asked for a feather. He then put the feather into his throat, for so he was accustomed to do from time to time. [LdM, AR(G), AR(S)]

n) After Alexander perceived that nothing did him good, he was unable to restrain his groans, for the pain was too strong for his body. [AR(S)]

o) Alexander was then conducted by his Friends, who led him by the hand back to his apartments. Being carried half dead from the table, Alexander was excruciated with such torture that he called for a sword to put an end to it, and felt pain at the touch of his attendants as if he were all over wounds. [Di, Ju]

p) His chamberlains put him to bed and attended him closely, but the pain increased and the physicians were summoned. Alexander was now convulsed with spasms and cramped with violent pains. No one was able to do anything helpful and Alexander spent the night in great discomfort and acute suffering. [LdM, AR(G), Di]

q) After Alexander had been given the poison, Cassander, after conferring with his brother, had gone away in the night, and, on reaching the Cilician Mountains, he began his wait for Iollas. For he had agreed with Iollas, that if Alexander died, he should depart at once. [AR(G)]

r) Cassander himself sent ahead one of his men by sea to Macedonia to his father Antipater, with a letter in cipher on the assumption that the affair had ended. The message was: "The deed for which I came hither has taken place, and has received a glorious consummation." [AR(S), AR(G), LdM]

Day 1: [18. month Daesius] [June 1, 323 B.C.]
a) On the following day at dawn, Alexander desired to take counsel with his Friends, but he was unable to make a testament because his tongue was paralyzed. Then he ordered everybody to leave his bedroom so that he could decide on his own what to do. [AR(S), AR(G), LdM]

b) Later Alexander [feeling better] again supped and drank at the house of Medius till far into the night. [Ar]

c) When Alexander was dining with Medius he pledged the health of everyone at the dinner, there being Tarentum in all, and accepted the same number of toasts from all. [At]

d) Alexander then called for a six-quart cup, also called the bowl of Heracles, and after a drink, he proposed the health of Proteas. Proteas took the cup, and when he had sung the king's praises he drank, to the applause of everybody. A little while afterward Proteas demanded the same cup, and again drinking, pledged the king. Alexander took it and pulled at it bravely, but could not hollowed out; on the contrary, he sank back on his cushion and let the cup drop from his hands. [At, Di, Pl]

e) After retiring from the drinking party he took a bath; after which he took a little food and slept there because he already felt feverish. [At, Ar, Pl]

Day 2: [19. month Daesius] [June 2, 323 B.C.]
a) On the following day Alexander took another bath and offered the customary sacrifices. [Ar, Pl]

b) Alexander then removed into his bed-chamber, where he entered a tester bed, lay down, and chatted with Medius. Alexander then spent the day at dice with Medius. [Ar, Pl]

c) Alexander also ordered his officers to meet him at daybreak. [Ar]

d) Then, when it was late, Alexander took a bath, performed his sacrifices to the gods, ate a little supper, and was again conveyed into the tester bed. The fever now raged the whole night without intermission. [Ar, Pl]

Day 3: [20. month Daesius] [June 3, 323 B.C.]
a) The next day Alexander took a bath; after which he offered his customary sacrifice. [Ar, Pl]

b) Alexander gave orders to Nearchus and the other officers that the voyage should begin on the third day. [Ar]

c) Lying in the bathing-room Alexander devoted himself to Nearchus, listening to his story of his voyage and of the great sea. [Pl]

Day 4: [21. month Daesius] [June 4, 323 B.C.]
a) The next day he bathed again and offered the prescribed sacrifices. [Ar, Pl]

b) After performing the sacred rites, he did not yet cease to suffer from the fever and was still more inflamed. [Ar, Pl]

c) Alexander summoned the officers and gave them instructions to have all things ready for the start of the fleet. [Ar]

d) Same as in the previous day, lying in the bathing-room, Alexander devoted himself to Nearchus, listening to his story of his voyage and of the great sea. [Pl]

e) In the evening Alexander took a bath, after which he was very ill and during the night he was in a grievous plight. [Ar, Pl]

f) Roxane, Alexander's wife, set a poultice on his stomach, and that brought him some relief from the pain. She would do it each day from now on. [AR(A), LdM]

Day 5: [22. month Daesius] [June 5, 323 B.C.]
a) The next day Alexander's fever was very high so he had his bed removed and he was carried out upon it to the sacrifices, in order that he might offer them according to his daily custom. After performing the sacred rites he lay down in the men's quarters [ἀνδρῶνι] near the great bath until dusk. [Ar, Pl]

b) In the meantime, though Alexander was now very dangerously ill, he summoned the most responsible of his officers and gave them fresh instructions about the expedition and voyage, ordering those who were going on foot to be ready on the fourth day, and those who were going to sail with him to be ready to sail on the fifth day. [Ar]

c) Alexander also conversed with his officers about the vacant posts in the army, and how they might be filled with experienced men. [Pl]

d) From this place [men's quarters] he was carried upon the bed to the river, where he embarked in a boat and sailed across the river to the park [northern palace]. There he again took a bath and went to rest. [Ar]

Day 6: [23. month Daesius] [June 6, 323 B.C.]
a) On the following day he was with difficulty carried out to the sacrifices, which he offered; and nonetheless gave other orders to the officers about the voyage. [Ar]

Day 7: [24. month Daesius] [June 7, 323 B.C.]
a) The next day, his fever was violent and he had to be carried forth to perform his sacrifices. [Ar, Pl]

b) When Alexander perceived he was unlikely to survive, he decided that this night he would throw himself into the river Euphrates, so that he might disappear from men's sight, and leave among the men of after-times a more firmly-rooted opinion that he owed his birth to a god, and had departed to the gods. [Ar]

c) Therefore Alexander gave orders that his principal officers [generals] should remain outside his chamber and wait in the court [hall] of the palace, and that the commanders of divisions [colonels] and the commanders of companies [captains] should remain outside before the gates and spend the night there. [Ar, Pl]

d) When night fell, Alexander ordered all his friends to leave his bedroom so that he could get to sleep more easily. He sent out even the young lads and boys who attended him, and he commanded both Cambobaphe [Combaphes/Combares, a young boy] and Roxane, his own wife, to go to another chamber. He also ordered that door, which afforded access to the river Euphrates, to be opened, and said, "There is no need for the guards to keep their watch." [LdM, AR(G), AR(S)]

e) When all had left and midnight came, Alexander arose from his bed, extinguished the lamp which was burning before him, went out the door, and crawled on his hands and feet to the bank of the river, and was going to cast himself in. As he neared it, he looked around and saw his wife Roxane running to him. He crouched down, hoping that he might, by chance, escape her notice. Roxane had suspected from his dismissing herself and all his attendants that he was planning to do something worthy of his courage. Roxane came to the bed, where she failed to find Alexander, and saw the door open. Then she caught the sound of groaning, for Alexander muttered in anguish, and she made her way towards him. Suddenly she saw him on the ground, so she put her arms around him, lifted him up and with weeping said to him, "Are you leaving me, Alexander?". Alexander slumped into her embrace and barely got out the words: "Ah, Roxane, in granting yourself a brief enjoyment of my company, you have robbed me of immortality. But see to it that nobody hears this from you." So, supported by Roxane, he returned to his bedroom. [LdM, AR(G), AR(S), Ar]

Day 8: [25. month Daesius] [June 8, 323 B.C.]
a) When dawn came, Alexander had Perdiccas, Lysimachus and Ptolemy summoned to him and ordered them not to grant anyone entrance to him until he had completed what he wanted to do. These then left, but he kept with him two young boys, Hermogenes and Combaphes, the one to write down a document [a draft of his testament] and the other to see to the lamp. And when it was day and having written the document, Alexander commanded Perdiccas, and Ptolemy, and Lysimachus to come into his presence alone, and everyone else to be put out. And they came into his presence. Then he ordered a testament [an official one] to be written [based on the draft]. [LdM, AR(G), AR(S), Cu]

b) Alexander, finding that death was inevitable, observed that "he perceived the approach of the fate of his family, for the most of the Aeacidae had died under thirty years of age." [Ju]

c) Then a report of an uproar and tumult among the Macedonian soldiers was heard; and they all came clothed in armor to the gate of Alexander, for they thought that Alexander had not been seized with sickness, but that the generals of the army had slain him by treachery; and they were going to fall upon them and kill them. When Alexander heard the outcry and uproar, he asked, "What is this disturbance?" Then Perdiccas informed him concerning the uproar and tumult. When Alexander heard of the real love and affection of the Macedonian soldiers towards himself, he ordered them to carry him and to convey him to the highest part of the city [northern palace]. And he commanded that the troops of the Macedonian camps should be armed, and that they should pass before him in their suits of armor. Then Perdiccas went out from before the king, and told the Macedonians, and convinced them that Alexander was not dead, but had been seized by sickness, "But (said he) put you on your armor, and go to the royal park [northern palace], for there you are to pass before him in review." When the Macedonians heard this, they girded on their armor and went to the park. And they carried Alexander thither on his bed. So the Macedonians passed in their armor before Alexander; and when they lifted up their eyes and saw Alexander, suddenly the color of their faces was changed, and their hearts were so oppressed by weeping and mourning that, in the face of that sadness and suffering and grief mingled with sighs, even the light of the sun became obscure and dark. Alexander then admitted them to his presence, and gave them his right hand to kiss. While they all wept, he not only did not shed a tear, but showed not the least token of sorrow; so that he even comforted some who grieved immoderately, and gave others messages to their parents; and his soul was as undaunted at meeting death, as it had formerly been at meeting an enemy. Then Peucolaus, an old Macedonian warrior, a mere private with no command, wept aloud when he saw Alexander, and said to Alexander in the Greek tongue, "O king, doer of good things, Philip, your father, ruled over us kindly and firmly, and you too, O king, has been likewise good and merciful and kind to us and you have raised Macedonia to such a level of renown that you rival the glory of the gods." And changing his speech he said in Macedonian, weeping as he spoke: "But now you are leaving us, and that means the name of our country, along with all the Macedonians, has also perished. So we should all die along with you." When he had spoken these words, tears streamed down from Alexander's eyes, and the Macedonian drew his sword and was going to slay himself. Then Alexander sprang up from the couch and taking the Macedonian's hand, he squeezed it and said to him, "O my friend, why do you add pain to pain so that I should taste death before my own death?" Then he commanded the troops of the Macedonians to go to their camps. [AR(S), AR(G), LdM, Ju]

d) But being now altogether in a dangerous state, Alexander was conveyed [back] from the park [northern palace] into the [southern] palace. [LdM, AR(S), AR(A), Pl, Ar]

e) Alexander had Perdiccas and the others called in. Alexander then commanded Perdiccas to bring the testament and to read it before him. [AR(S), AR(G), LdM]

f) Then Archelaus the scribe brought the testament, and in it, there was written as follows: "From Alexander to Ammon and to my mother Olympias, greeting. Inasmuch as the gods have willed that I should be taken from the assembly and dwelling of men to the assemblies and dwellings of the gods, I too have thought that it would be expedient and helpful for me, and I have thought that it would be right for me to inform you thereof. Do you then, my mother, not be grieved nor distressed at my departure, for such is the will of God, but console yourself in your wisdom and be glad. I have appointed and sent all my generals for your honor that they may make you exceedingly glad. I Alexander in this testament command: the Macedonians and the Greeks shall keep themselves in training and guard the country from enemies and be always vigilant; they shall keep the temples of the gods and the royal palace, and preserve them in prosperity and in joy." [AR(S)]

g) Then his Friends asked: "To whom do you leave the kingdom?" and he replied: "To the best." In addition to this remark, he told them that he saw there would be a great funeral contest held in his honor. And these were his last words [to Companions, who then left his room because Alexander felt tired]. [Cu, Di, Ar, Ju]

h) Then Roxane, as she was used to, put on him a certain assuaging balm. And a light sleep came, but his fever did not abate. [LdM, AR(A), Pl]

i) Later, [when Alexander woke up,] he got very thirsty and he asked for a cup of wine. Then Iollas gave him a cup of wine that was again poisoned. After he drank it, Alexander asked for water to rinse out his mouth. And once again, Iollas altered the cup with the drug and offered it to him. And Alexander took it and rinsed out his mouth. And then and there, the pangs recommenced and made him cry aloud and he gave up hope in life. [LdM, AR(A), Pl]

j) Then Alexander summoned Perdiccas and Ptolemy and Lysimachus. When his officers entered the room, he knew them indeed, but could no longer utter a word, being speechless and delirious. He was in a very high fever during the night. [AR(A), Pl, Ar]

Day 9: [26. month Daesius] [June 9, 323 B.C.]
a) During the next day and night Alexander was speechless and had a very high fever. [Ar, Pl]

Day 10: [27. month Daesius] [June 10, 323 B.C.]
a) Alexander had again a very high fever. [Ar]

b) The soldiers were very desirous of seeing him; some, in order to see him once more while still alive; others, because there was a report that he was already dead. They came with loud shouts to the doors of the palace. Although their leaders warned them not to burden the king in his illness, most of them through grief and affection for their king tried to force their way in to see him. They threatened his companions until all opposition was broken down. And the doors had been thrown open to them so that they could be admitted despite their numbers and sent out by another door. Without cloak or armor, wearing only a single tunic, one by one, they all filed slowly past his couch. When his soldiers passed by him he was unable to speak; yet he greeted each of them with his right hand, raising his head with difficulty and making a sign with his eyes. He continued to hold his body in the same attitude in which he had composed himself when he had been saluted by the whole army last time. As the soldiers gazed at him, their rising tears gave the impression no longer of an army looking upon its king, but of one attending his funeral. After saluting him tearfully they went out by the other door. [Ar, Pl, Cu, LdM]

c) And having dismissed the common throng, as if he had discharged every debt to life, Alexander threw back his exhausted frame. [Cu]

d) Alexander then, being unable to speak, took his ring from his finger, and gave it to Perdiccas. [Cu, Ju, Di, LdM]

e) Later, Python and Seleucus were sent to the temple of Serapis to enquire whether they should bring Alexander there. [Pl]

Day 11: [28. month Daesius] [June 11, 323 B.C.]
a) Python and Seleucus slept in the temple of Serapis, and then [in the morning] asked the god whether it would be better and more desirable for Alexander to be carried into his temple, in order as a suppliant to be cured by him. A voice issued from the god saying that he was not to be carried into the temple, but that it would be better for him to remain where he was. [Ar, Pl]

b) Towards evening, Alexander died. [Pl, Ar]

[Alexias]

Interesting, thanks. Maybe you could highlight the bits that don't come from the romances and don't deal with the poisoning so that you can read the fever narrative and see how it has been embroidered by the poisoning narrative.

Interestingly, if you read this narrative from Arrian (Book VII, XXV):

Day 1The Royal Diary gives the following account to the effect that he revelled and drank at the dwelling of Medius; Day 2then rose up, took a bath, and slept; then again supped at the house of Medius and again drank till far into the night. After retiring from the drinking party he took a bath; after which he took a little food and slept there, because he already felt feverish. Day 3He was carried out upon a couch to the sacrifices, in order that he might offer them according to his daily custom. After performing the sacred rites he lay down in the banqueting hall until dusk. In the meantime he gave instructions to the officers about the expedition and voyage, ordering those who were going on foot to be ready on the fourth day, and those who were going to sail with him to be ready to sail on the fifth day. From 419this place he was carried upon the couch to the river, where he embarked in a boat and sailed across the river to the park. There he again took a bath and went to rest.

he obviously fell seriously ill quite quickly, being unable to walk to the morning sacrifices by the morning after first feeling feverish (the dinner party with Medius, not the preceding night's party). Either his temperature was already high, or he was exercising the privileges of rank.

Plutarch's account (book VII, 75)

He gave a splendid entertainment to Nearchus, and then, although he had taken his customary bath before going to bed, at the request of Medius he went to hold high revel with him;​120 5 and here, after drinking all the next day, he began to have a fever.

would suggest that he may have caught a chill by going out again at night after having taken a bath, which he exacerbated by drinking while feverish.

Aristobulus says that he had a raging fever, and that when he got very thirsty he drank wine, whereupon he became delirious

[Jeanne Reames]

All of this assumes the Ephimerides were real ... which is actually disputed from Badian forward, for some very good reasons, just as the so-called "last plans" may have been half Peridkkas' fabrication.

There may have *been* ephimerides, at least while ATG was in Babylon (following ancient near eastern tradition), but they very well may have been doctored early in the Diadochi Wars.

[AdamKvanta]

Thanks for the comments.

Maybe you could highlight the bits that don't come from the romances and don't deal with the poisoning so that you can read the fever narrative and see how it has been embroidered by the poisoning narrative.

Well, dealing with the poisoning is not just in the romances and I don't think the fever narrative contradicts the poison narrative (a fever can be a symptom of subacute arsenic poisoning). I consider both narratives as historical. But I agree highlighting or color-coding the sources (in general) could be interesting. However, this could be tricky and for now, it is not one of my priorities.

Interestingly, if you read this narrative from Arrian (Book VII, XXV):

Day 1The Royal Diary gives the following account to the effect that he revelled and drank at the dwelling of Medius; Day 2then rose up, took a bath, and slept; then again supped at the house of Medius and again drank till far into the night. After retiring from the drinking party he took a bath; after which he took a little food and slept there, because he already felt feverish. Day 3He was carried out upon a couch to the sacrifices, in order that he might offer them according to his daily custom. After performing the sacred rites he lay down in the banqueting hall until dusk. In the meantime he gave instructions to the officers about the expedition and voyage, ordering those who were going on foot to be ready on the fourth day, and those who were going to sail with him to be ready to sail on the fifth day. From 419this place he was carried upon the couch to the river, where he embarked in a boat and sailed across the river to the park. There he again took a bath and went to rest.

he obviously fell seriously ill quite quickly, being unable to walk to the morning sacrifices by the morning after first feeling feverish (the dinner party with Medius, not the preceding night's party). Either his temperature was already high, or he was exercising the privileges of rank.

Yes, your interpretation is plausible on its own but when I compared it to other sources I came up with another explanation. I consider your Day 3 as an interpolation from my Day 5 and you can see that text in my Day 5. I think it has to be misplaced because Plutarch doesn't have this Day 3 in his account: "On the eighteenth of the month Daesius​ he slept in the bathing-room because he had a fever. On the following day, after his bath, he removed into his bed-chamber, and spent the day at dice with Medius."

Plutarch's account (book VII, 75)

He gave a splendid entertainment to Nearchus, and then, although he had taken his customary bath before going to bed, at the request of Medius he went to hold high revel with him;​120 5 and here, after drinking all the next day, he began to have a fever.

would suggest that he may have caught a chill by going out again at night after having taken a bath, which he exacerbated by drinking while feverish.

Yes, but how likely could such a fever be fatal?

Aristobulus says that he had a raging fever, and that when he got very thirsty he drank wine, whereupon he became delirious

I put this source into my Day 8i because of the word "delirious" (φρενιτιᾶσαι) which I presume could mean Alexander became speechless. What else if he already had "a raging fever"?

[AdamKvanta]

All of this assumes the Ephimerides were real ... which is actually disputed from Badian forward, for some very good reasons, just as the so-called "last plans" may have been half Peridkkas' fabrication.

There may have *been* ephimerides, at least while ATG was in Babylon (following ancient near eastern tradition), but they very well may have been doctored early in the Diadochi Wars.

Thanks for the comments.

I don't know about the very good reasons why the Ephemerides weren't real but I agree they were doctored. For example, Plutarch's Ephemerides doesn't contain passages about the upcoming voyage (as in Arrian's account). So either the upcoming voyage passages were removed in Plutarch or added in Arrian.