American Philological Association: Annual Meeting

[rocktupac]

For reasons unknown, I have failed to alert the forum that I will be presenting original research, which was conducted over the past two years, about the ancient Greek style of body armor known as the linothorax at the 140th Annual American Philological Association (APA) meeting. (Alexander can be seen wearing this style of armor in the famous Alexander Mosaic from Pompeii). I will be speaking at the convention along with Professor Gregory S. Aldrete from the University of Wisconsin-Green Bay. Together, we have constructed a full linothorax replica and made many linen test patches for our research.

Here is a brief sample of my lecture (I apologize for the length):

"So what did a complete linothorax look like and how was it constructed? These were the earliest questions encountered when our research first began. Vase paintings and sculptural reliefs offer ample clues to what a linothorax should look like when finished, and it was from these that made it possible to backwards engineer a basic pattern for this armor. With the armor’s design in place, our next step was determining its composition. The name itself, literally “a linen chest or torso,” seems to provide fairly strong evidence that the primary material was linen; and men such as Homer, Herodotus, Livy, Strabo and Plutarch would agree, each describing the armor as being made of linen.

To many modern scholars, this proposes a problem; and questions arise about the armor’s protective qualities and durability. It is argued that cloth armor alone would provide little for the wearer, and it is oftentimes dismissed. While it is obvious a single layer of linen is quite flimsy, and would offer practically no protection, the same linen cloth, when glued one on top of the other, becomes stiff yet malleable. Its hardness is retained as it contours to the shape of the body. The result is a comfortable, lightweight and effective type of body armor. Scenes on vase paintings of warriors dressing themselves show the many qualities of the armor: from the shoulder pieces standing upright, to the main portion being wrapped around the soldier. Though it has been speculated that the armor was perhaps quilted, and not laminated, this method of assembly does not result in rigid armor that can stand up on its own, as is depicted. And our tests demonstrate that laminated linen armor could be very reliable, and withstand an assault from a myriad of weapons, which I will talk more about later.

After careful planning, a paper pattern of the armor was created, and the construction process began. There was a pattern for the top piece, which wrapped around the shoulders, and for the mid-section. Bolts of linen cloth were then cut into rectangles of equal length until we had the appropriate number of layers for assembly, in this case 17, although it varies depending on the thickness of the fabric’s thread. Next, the paper patterns were traced onto the cloth to ensure uniformity. Each individual layer was then cut along the pattern lines, revealing the basic shape of the linothorax. The lamination process followed. A layer of animal-based glue was spread onto the fabric until it was thoroughly covered, then another layer of fabric was added on top and pressed onto the bottom piece until the glue held the two layers together. The process was repeated until all the layers were combined. When dried, the glue and fabric remained pliable. When the two main pieces were finished, they were joined together using metal bolts; and when wrapped around the body, the linothorax was then laced together on the left-hand side, as was typical of the armor found on the vase paintings.

To test the protective capabilities of the linothorax we decided to focus on how well it resisted penetration by arrows. Not only would this have been one of the most common battlefield hazards, but it was also a type of attack that we could precisely regulate and measure and thus produce scientifically valid test data. For this, dozens of test patches, which were roughly 2 by 2 foot square, were created. Thorough testing was carried out to examine the effect of a number of different variables. These variables fell into two basic categories: differences in the construction of the test patches themselves, and differences in how we shot them. The fabric variations included different thicknesses of fabric, different fabrics themselves, different numbers of layers, and different arrangement of the fabric layers to alternate the direction of the weave. We also experimented with laminated versus quilted test patches and even some patches that were a combination of both.

The patches were hung on a dense foam block, simulating a human torso, and strapped securely to a wooden stand. Variables concerning how these patches were tested included shooting each patch from different regulated distances, using different strength of bows, and a variety of different arrowheads. We felt it was particularly important that at least some of the tests be conducted using the types of materials that would have been available in the ancient world, and so a number of our arrows were hand-made wooden arrows with natural feather fletching; a number of the arrowheads were hand-cast iron and sharpened by hand, and the fabrics and glues were similarly authentic. We also used some modern arrows, arrowheads, and fabrics for comparison, and not surprisingly, these tests yielded very different results."

With the meeting only a week away, needless to say, I am very excited. We have both put a lot of time into the project and are glad to see the hard work paying off. I will let everyone know how it was received and how everything went. Until then, I'll be getting ready for Philadelphia.

-Scott M. Bartell

Website for APA Meeting:
http://www.apaclassics.org/AnnualMeetin ... eting.html
(If you click on the link for the full list of abstracts you can see our sheet under Aldrete, Greg "Linothorax Project" -- its near the top)

Website for Professor Aldrete:
http://www.uwgb.edu/aldreteg/

Website for Linothroax Project Info:
http://www.uwgb.edu/aldreteg/Linothorax.html
(I'm the one in the orange shirt holding a spear)

[rocktupac]

I should also add that I became interested in researching the linothorax because of Alexander and his army. It was yet another area that was interesting to me and that I knew little about, so I began researching the subject and found little written about it. It shocked me how empty our knowledge of it was and how little credibility modern authors seemed to give to it. That is how the linothorax project began, as so many of my other projects do as well: with Alexander.

[amyntoros]

Hi Scott,

I'm pleased as punch that you found the time to post this information and I'm equally delighted in the practical aspects of your research and presentation because I believe it is one of the best ways (if not the only way) to add to our knowledge and understanding of this kind of armor. I so wish I could attend but I'm not sure if I'll be able to pull it off at this late date.

I'll repeat the link to your university video here incase anyone doesn't catch it on the website - The Linothorax: Recreated at UWGB

Best regards,

[Paralus]

Though it has been speculated that the armor was perhaps quilted, and not laminated, this method of assembly does not result in rigid armor that can stand up on its own, as is depicted. And our tests demonstrate that laminated linen armor could be very reliable, and withstand an assault from a myriad of weapons, which I will talk more about later.

Fascinating, as Spock would intone. You dismiss strident modern opinion (fevered in some instances) that these corselets were quilted? I have thought that a combination existed but many historians and re-enactors, although they will argue for the quilted variety, will construct a glued version. This because of the "standing shoulder straps" (as you indicate) and, I rather cynically suspect, because of easier construction. Art, as you state, consistently indicates that these straps were stiff enough to support themselves vertically when not laced down (more on art below).

I have followed the debate - fiercely conducted at times - and it appears that entrenched opinion often prevails. There has been much argument over just what "glue" was readily available and how efficacious it was. Some of the suggested types break down – some quickly. Others invite mould and are eaten away. Was the glue you utilised based on what was available or what can be shown to have been in use? (I’m no expert on adhesives: as a “materials scientist” that is Salaminia’s - Mrs Paralus - area of expertise).

These cuirasses functioned in a similar fashion to today’s body armour. Both are layered (today’s being of Kevlar) with the object being to dull the effect of the weapon rather than directly repel. The linothorax was designed to minimise the penetrating power of a bolt or sword. I doubt there was little it might do in the event of a flush sarisa strike. Bronze armour, surprisingly to some, also did not prevent missile spear injury: it all depends on metal strength and thickness; the metal covering of the apsis or pelte being largely decorative. Alexander, whether wearing a linothorax or bronze / iron cuirass, at the Mali town found this out to his cost (the aforementioned Spock would say that, logically, he was wearing a linothorax).

Alexander is indeed wearing such a cuirass on the Alexander Mosaic as are those infantry – not represented heroically nude – represented on the “Alexander” sarcophagus. These later are interesting critters. It is often argued that these are hypaspists due to the fact that they are fighting amongst the cavalry and are in attendance upon Alexander. This may well be so – though to draw such dogmatic conclusions from what is, after all, art is fraught. Such one plus one equals two rationale with art would lead us to believe that Alexander (and his hypaspists) went into battle barefoot; Alexander, seemingly, without greaves or any other discernable armour and, like “Hephaestion”, accoutred much like a Persian. The reality will have been different.

Interestingly Heckel, in inimitable style, notes that the sarcophagus indicates either Greek mercenary or hoplite hypaspists in the “killing scene” (on the one end) and then refers to every “hoplite” pictured on the sarcophagus afterwards as “hoplite armed hypaspists”. There seems no detail upon the aspides that would identify them as Macedonian in the photos that I have seen. (I’d appreciate any information from anyone who has seen the sarcophagus in the Museum of Istanbul). It is more than possible that these troops were the “royal foot guard” – the sons of the nobility and graduates of the paides basilikoi – known as either the agema of the hypaspists or the “royal” hypaspists. These shields are represented (between 75-85cm in diameter) in noble Macedonian tombs. These troops will either have been fitted out by the treasury or could (and likely did – see Arrhabaeus’ “Lynkestian hoplites” in Thuc 4.124) equip themselves.

How much does your finished product weigh? (I’ve seen estimates between 4.5 – 6.25kg). Would be most interested in reading the presentation in its entirety if that is possible afterwards.

Hope the presentation goes sweetly … nerves and all.

[Paralus]

By the way: nice to see you seeing us Amyntoros.

[rocktupac]

During our tests, the quilted patches actually performed quite poorly. We used a great number of arrow types and arrowheads, along with three different bows (each having a different strength of pull). But consistently the quilted patches were penetrated much further than the laminated ones.

We also used three different types of glues, two of which were available in the ancient world. The first was a rabbit-skin glue made from the dried fat of rabbits. The second was a glue made of boiled flax seeds in water. And the last glue, the 'not-so-ancient glue', was Elmer's School glue (mainly out of curiosity). Each worked very well in the lamination process and have held together through the testing, storage, transport and the wear and tear of over a year!

The complete replica linothorax we constructed (which ended up being 17 layers thick) weighed around 11 pounds (roughly 5 kg). The armor is rigid and can stand upright on its own, yet flexible enough to be wrapped or shaped around the body. It was worn in the past for more than 5 consecutive hours and without complaint.

There is another section to the article that is right before the piece I attached, and we're still tweaking the final segment which reports the test results in detail. As soon as I can I will attach the entire speech (or at least what I have left out).

[marcus]

Interestingly Heckel, in inimitable style, notes that the sarcophagus indicates either Greek mercenary or hoplite hypaspists in the “killing scene” (on the one end) and then refers to every “hoplite” pictured on the sarcophagus afterwards as “hoplite armed hypaspists”. There seems no detail upon the aspides that would identify them as Macedonian in the photos that I have seen. (I’d appreciate any information from anyone who has seen the sarcophagus in the Museum of Istanbul).

Happy New Year, Paralus.

I can't think of anything, off the top of my head, that would specifically identify any of the characters on the Alexander Sarcophagus as being "Macedonian", apart from the fact that they have been referred to as Macedonian since the sarcophagus was first discovered ...

When I was last there I took photos of just about every character on the sarcophagus (although, unfortunately, many of the photos didn't come out, a mixture of no flash and the fact that the sarc. is surrounded by glass), so I shall have to pore through them to see if there are any indications.

Thinking about it, the only way that Alexander can truly be identified is by the ram's horns on his helmet; otherwise ...

ATB

[Paralus]

I can't think of anything, off the top of my head, that would specifically identify any of the characters on the Alexander Sarcophagus as being "Macedonian", apart from the fact that they have been referred to as Macedonian since the sarcophagus was first discovered ...

Happy New Year to your good self "Old Man"!

The entire battle scene is – in my view – Guagamela. That is an entirely personal view it must be said and arguments for Issos might be just as cogent. That the representation is “pictorial” is, in my view, not likely. It is – as I’ve argued above – artistic: Alexander and “Hephaestion” ride into the fight un-armoured and in Persian dress. The hypaspist hoplite is claimed to hold a dory(spear) but, to my eyes, his opposed thumb holds a xyphos . The aspis, I grant, is some 80-84cm given a 1.8m individual.

Personally I have no doubt that any reading of Arrian will show that the “guards” (=agema of the hypaspists) operated in something approaching the panoply of the hoplite. The regular hypaspists may well have been fielded in similar equipment when required. Indeed their shield (aspis) may have been larger than supposed. Their function “shield bearer” for the king defined them but did not limit them to the literal “aspis-bearer”. In any case Philip’s and Alexander’s hypaspist corps, at Gabiene, were they hoplites, will have become so much old Macedonian souvlaki upon the sarissae of Antigonus’ Macedonians when they “fell heavily upon them”. Instead they “cut them to pieces” after pushing them into confusion.

[Paralus]

There is another section to the article that is right before the piece I attached, and we're still tweaking the final segment which reports the test results in detail. As soon as I can I will attach the entire speech (or at least what I have left out).

I would hugely appreciate the opprtunity to read your work if it is possible.

[rocktupac]

Here is the full first half of the presentation:

Literary sources, vase paintings, and sculptural reliefs all provide evidence that one of the most common types of body armor used in the ancient Greek world was the linothorax, a type of armor apparently composed mainly of fabric. In modern scholarship, however, the linothorax has been almost completely neglected. In Jarva's magisterial work on archaic Greek body armor, for example, only a few pages are devoted to the linothorax. There are two main reasons for this scholarly neglect. The first and undoubtedly the main reason is quite understandable; not much attention has been given to the linothorax for the simple and compelling reason that due to the inherently perishable materials that they were made of, no examples survive today. The contrast is especially sharp when one considers the many fine examples of bronze armor that are extant. Scholars are fond of making typologies, but it is difficult to do so when there is nothing to examine. The second reason is that there seems to be widespread skepticism among many modern authors whether any armor which used cloth as its basic ingredient could have offered credible protection to its wearer. This has led to much speculation that the linothorax was not really made of fabric but was instead made of leather, or that the cloth was only a covering for metal plates, and so on. Between the lack of extant examples and the doubts as to its utility, the linothorax has languished in obscurity. Ancient sources, however, suggest that the linothorax enjoyed a long reign on the battlefield from archaic through Hellenistic times and that it may even have been the armor of choice for many ancient warriors.

The UWGB Linothorax Project attempts to illuminate some of the mystery and obscurity surrounding this type of armor by, first of all, attempting to reconstruct full-size versions of the linothorax, and second, by subjecting historically plausible reconstructions to scientific tests to determine whether or not this type of armor would have offered a viable form of protection to its wearer. While the project is still ongoing, our initial results suggest that the linothorax's long use on Greek battlefields may have been due to the fact that not only did it offer surprisingly effective protection, but it also may have had some additional practical advantages over comparable metal body armor.

I should note that this project did not begin with me, but with one of my advanced undergraduate students, Scott Bartell. It was he who first asked these questions and who, on his own initiative, built the first attempt at a reconstruction. Over the past several years, it has grown into a collaborative project involving myself and several dozen of my students.

The linothorax, literally translatable as a "linen chest," is first mentioned in the ship list in Book 2 of Homer's Iliad, when the lesser Ajax is described as wearing such armor. Depictions of what are taken to be linothoraxes are common on vase paintings of Homeric heroes. Standard features of the linothorax are that it seems to have 2 main components, a long rectangular piece that wraps around the body and is tied on the left side, and an H-shaped shoulder piece attached to the upper back. The two unattached strips are then pulled forward with one strip on each side of the head and both are tied down on the upper chest. Usually depicted across the bottom of the linothorax is a double row of flaps offering some protection to the groin and upper thighs.

Iconographic and literary references attest to its continued use throughout the classical period as a standard body armor employed by Greek hoplites. The linothorax was not just a Greek phenomenon, but rather was used by a wide variety of cultures across the entire length of the Mediterranean during this period. Herodotus provides a fairly lengthy description of two highly decorated linen corselets which were sent as offerings by the Egyptian king Amasis to Greece. Livy reports that the Temple of Jupiter Feretrius in Rome contained a linen corselet which was taken as a spoil from the Etruscan king of Veii in 437 BC (4.19.2-20.7), and Strabo claims that the linothorax was a customary piece of equipment among the Lusitanian tribes in Spain. (Strabo, Geography 3.3.6) During the Hellenistic era, it seems to have been especially popular among the Macedonian armies of Philip and Alexander, and indeed the most famous image of a linothorax is that of Alexander himself wearing what appears to be a linothorax in the well-known Alexander mosaic from Pompeii. Indeed, the linothorax seems to have been the standard issue body armor in Alexander's army. For example, while in India, his army received 25,000 new suits of armor sent to replace the linothoraxes which had been worn out on the march, and he ordered that the old armor be burned. (Quintus Curtius Rufus 9.3.21) Alexander certainly could have afforded to equip his army with any sort of armor he wanted, so it is significant that the linothorax was apparently his armor of choice, suggesting that it had qualities that made him and his men prefer it to other types of body protection.

Using mainly the iconographic images of the linothorax, my students and I recreated several examples attempting to copy the distinctive shape. The linothorax is usually thought to have been composed of layers of linen laminated together with some type of glue, although how many layers and what type of glue were used are uncertain. This is where the lack of any surviving physical evidence becomes especially vexing. There are, however, at least some archaeological finds that attest to the fact that the Greeks possessed the technology of laminating together layers of linen using glues. A small fragment of layered and laminated linen has been found in a grave among a cache of arms and armor at Mycenae, and this fragment contains 14 layers. (Studniczka, 1887) It is thought that this may well be a piece of an actual linothorax, although admittedly it could have come from another type of laminated armor, perhaps cloth greaves. Similarly, a fragment of linen found at Tarquinia was identified by the excavator as having originally been part of a linen corselet. (Helbig, 1874) The reconstructed linothorax that we have brought with us today has 17 layers of linen and uses a modern animal hide-based glue. Getting the look and fit of the linothorax right took considerable trial and error, as did determining a likely thickness. The 17 laminated layers are just over a centimeter in thickness, and after much experimentation, this seems to us a practical thickness that offers good protection while retaining a useful degree of flexibility. We have worn the reconstruction for up to eight hours at a time in various weather conditions, and these experiences have led to some significant observations about wearability which we will return to later.

In addition to trying to reconstruct the form of a linothorax and test its wearability, we also wanted to determine how much protection it would have offered. To investigate this, we made a number of experimental test patches using various types of fabrics, glues, and weaves, and then subjected them to penetration tests by shooting them with arrows. To investigate other variables, we shot the various test patches at different ranges, with different strength bows, and with a number of different shapes and types of arrowheads.

For these tests, we felt it was especially important to use materials that would have been available to the ancient Greeks. Obtaining linen that was truly unprocessed and unbleached turned out to be more of a challenge than we had anticipated. Many linens advertised as hand-woven turned out still to have been processed and harvested by mechanical means that altered factors such as the density of the thread count and the tensile strength of individual fibers. Eventually we were able to connect with a group of women who actually grew and harvested their own flax plants by traditional methods and then processed them by hand. The resulting fibers were then spun by the same women into thread by hand and the resulting thread woven by them into fabric by hand. We used this very authentic linen, which did have some different qualities from the commercially available linens, for some of our test patches, and feel that the results we got from this linen are very comparable to what ancient Greek linen would have been like. Another issue was what glue to use, and again we experimented with a number of possibilities ranging from modern animal-based glues to ancient recipes. The highly authentic glues with which we achieved the best results included glue made from rabbit skin and glue made from flax seeds, both of which would presumably have been widely available in the ancient Greek world.

In these tests, the laminated linen proved surprisingly resilient. In our second presentation, we will give more specific information about these tests and their results. However, our general conclusion is that a 1 cm thick linothorax would have amply protected an ancient warrior from fatal arrow hits from the types of bows and at the sorts of ranges most likely to have been encountered. A shot from a powerful bow at point blank range would probably have penetrated, but such an occurrence was relatively unlikely to have happened often.

Much of the reason for the impressive performance of the linothorax in these tests has to do with the qualities of the materials used. When an arrow point strikes a hard surface such as metal, the entire force of the arrow (mass times velocity) is transmitted to the tiny point of impact. When an arrow hits the linothorax, however, the softer surface of the linothorax flexes and bends, and the force of the arrow is absorbed over the entire surface rather than just at the point of impact. In addition, when an arrow hits a hard uniform surface, it in essence is only cutting through a single uniform layer. When it hits the linothorax, each layer of fabric offers a separate layer that has to be cut through individually. In many respects, the laminated fabric composition of the linothorax is like an ancient forerunner of modern Kevlar armor, which similarly employs bonded layers of fabric-like material to absorb the force of impacts and resist penetration.

In conclusion, linen armor appears to have a number of significant advantages over metal armor. First, it is a far more practical material to wear in a hot climate and would enable the soldier wearing it to have much greater endurance both in battle and on the march. Metal armor heats up quickly, and under the glare of a hot sun quite literally bakes its wearer, whereas linen armor stays cool and comfortable.

Second, the weight of the linothorax is considerably less than other common types of armor. Our reconstruction linothorax weighs about 11.5 pounds. Comparable bronze cuirasses weigh about 25 pounds, and a shirt of chain mail weighs about 27 pounds.

Third, when it gets wet, the tensile strength of linen fibers actually increases by about 33% percent, so that the linothorax would have functioned well in humid or wet environments. This does raise the issue of having to use waterproof glues or else apply some waterproof coating to the finished linothorax. We have done some preliminary waterproofing tests, and have had some success with waterproofing using pine resin, but this is an area that will require further research.

Fourth, the linothorax uses materials that that would have been widely available even to relatively poor inhabitants of the ancient world, and the technical skills needed to make a linothorax, weaving and gluing, were common ones familiar to almost all inhabitants of the Greek world. Rather than requiring the specialized skills of a blacksmith to manufacture or repair it, quite literally almost any woman in the ancient world would have been able to construct or repair one.

Fifth, the ubiquity of the materials and skills needed for the linothorax may have made them significantly cheaper to make than comparable metal armor. They could also have been mass-produced more readily since, unlike a bronze cuirass, a linothorax did not have to be constructed to fit a specific individual. Because of the ties at the side and top, a linothorax can be easily adjusted to achieve a perfect fit within a generous range. They were probably made in a few basic sizes such as small, medium, and large, to fit widely divergent body types, but then within these sizes the fit of the linothorax could be adjusted with the ties.

Sixth, in addition to being cooler and lighter than metal armor, the linothorax had another distinct advantage in wearability, which was its flexibility. Even when laminated with as many as 15-20 layers, the linothorax retains a certain flexibility, and we found that when we wore it for several hours, our body heat would cause the glue to become somewhat soft, and the linothorax would mold itself to our particular body shape, making it surprisingly comfortable to wear for extended periods.

While the surviving physical evidence for the linothorax is sketchy, literary and iconographic sources clearly testify that this type of armor was in use for a long time by many different cultures. Our experiments at reconstructing the linothorax demonstrate some of the reasons to account for this popularity and further suggest that it may have been a surprisingly effective form of protection for ancient Mediterranean warriors. Our second presentation will let you examine one of our reconstructions as well as some target patches, and will go into more depth on the results of these tests. Finally, after the formal presentations, there will be a chance for interested and/or intrepid individuals to try their hands at the techniques of lamination and to examine the construction process more closely.

[rocktupac]

And this is the report of the test results (it follows my original post):

The arrow tests revealed that the linothorax would have offered excellent protection to its wearer. For example, when a 20 layer laminated test patch was shot from 50 feet with a moderate power bow the arrowhead failed to fully penetrate the test patch.

When the results of the arrow tests were fully analyzed, a number of basic conclusions emerged. Doubling the power of the bow produced roughly doubled the depth of penetration in the target patch. Doubling the thickness of the target patch roughly doubled the ability of the patch to resist penetration. Doubling the distance to the target somewhat decreased the depth of penetration, but this did not have nearly as much of an effect as the other variables. This was expected since all of our tests were conducted at relatively close ranges of between 25 and 100 feet. In battlefield terms anything shot at any of these distances would have been point blank range.

A factor that resulted in much greater variation was the type of arrowhead used. We used three types of authentic hand-forged, hand-sharpened, iron, replica arrowheads: a large leaf shape point, a small leaf shaped point, and a barbed point.

For comparison, we also tested two modern arrowheads, a field point which is intended for target shooting and minimal penetration, and a modern hunting point with razor-sharp highly-hardened edges. Whereas the linothorax provided good protection against all of the replica points, the modern hunting point slashed through it, penetrating 3 to 5 times deeper than any of the replicas.

Finally the tests enabled us to assess the effects of differences in how the target patches were constructed. One common assertion is that quilted layers would provide better protection than laminated. In our tests, however, the quilted target patches were less effective than laminated ones of the same number of layers. A 20 layer quilted patch offered about 80% of the protection of a 20 layer laminated patch. One somewhat surprising result was that alternating the direction of weave in the test patches had no effect, and did not increase its resistance to penetration at all.

Finally, here too the authenticity of the materials used played a significant role. Our most authentic test patch which was made out of linen that had been grown, processed, spun, and woven entirely by hand had somewhat different properties than other samples that we tested. It both tended to be more easily penetrated initially by low-power shots, but then to offer greater resistance to high power ones. We believe this can be explained by the qualities of the fabric itself which was softer and gummier than the less-authentic samples. Thus it initially is more easily penetrated, but ultimately offers greater resistance.

Conclusions:
While there are a number of fine distinctions that can be made from the results, the overall conclusion is that a 1cm thick linothorax of between 10 and 20 layers would have protected its wearer from all arrow strikes likely to have been encountered on an ancient battlefield.

To give you an idea of the degree of protection offered by the linothorax, when the small leaf-shaped arrowhead was shot from a very weak 25 pound bow at a range of 25 feet, it still had enough power to penetrate 231 mm deep into the foam target backing. This would be like shooting at an unarmored person and would be a fatal hit. When the same arrowhead was shot at the 20 layer laminated test patch it only penetrated 5 mm.

It should be noted that the test conditions represent a kind of worse case scenario in which the target is stationary, the angle of arrow to target is exactly perpendicular, the range is very short, and the target surface itself is flat. On an actual battlefield, each of these factors would be different and each would decrease the penetrating ability of the arrow. Thus the actual performance of a linothorax in battle would almost certainly have been even more impressive than our test results indicate.

Finally, out of curiosity we also employed a number of other weapons against the test patches. This was done in a less-scientific fashion, but the results nevertheless appear impressive. We struck the test patches with various replica swords, spears, axes, and maces, and it held up quite well. Small sharp blades such as the tip of a Viking type sword penetrated best, but the patches proved surprisingly resistant to blunt force weapons such as axes. While the wearer might well have suffered some broken ribs, he almost certainly would have survived blows that otherwise would have been lethal.

[jan]

Hi Scott, May I make a suggestion or ask a favor of you in your presentation. I do not know whether you will be able to make a video of your presentation but if you can, would you place it on Youtube so that we could see it. It sounds like a very exciting and interesting presentation, and it would be nice if you could have it videotaped for youtube as it is both educational and entertaining. Thank you. By the way, you are looking good with your spear! Jan

[rocktupac]

Hello all!

I am back from my trip to Philadelphia where I presented a paper (along with Dr. Gregory S. Aldrete) on the linothorax. We spoke to an audience of about 100 people and the overall reaction was very positive. Without any exaggeration, we answered question after question for over an hour. The crowd was extremely excited and eager to learn more. I got the impression that this talk on the linothorax really changed a lot of people's perceptions of the armor. Due to our tests, we were able to change the minds of a number of individuals and give the linothorax the credit it deserves.

Over the course of the next week or two, Dr. Aldrete and myself will be working on updating our website (http://www.uwgb.edu/aldreteg/Linothorax.html); it will include more photos and information. And following that, we will begin our work on the article for publication, which we already have a good amount written for it. Please feel free to ask any questions.

Scott

[marcus]

Hello all!

I am back from my trip to Philadelphia where I presented a paper (along with Dr. Gregory S. Aldrete) on the linothorax. We spoke to an audience of about 100 people and the overall reaction was very positive. Without any exaggeration, we answered question after question for over an hour. The crowd was extremely excited and eager to learn more. I got the impression that this talk on the linothorax really changed a lot of people's perceptions of the armor. Due to our tests, we were able to change the minds of a number of individuals and give the linothorax the credit it deserves.

Over the course of the next week or two, Dr. Aldrete and myself will be working on updating our website (http://www.uwgb.edu/aldreteg/Linothorax.html); it will include more photos and information. And following that, we will begin our work on the article for publication, which we already have a good amount written for it. Please feel free to ask any questions.

Scott

Super! Congratulations. You must be delighted, especially by the interest shown.

I think we will all look forward to having a chance to read the paper - and let us know when the site is updated!

ATB